Gender and Sexuality in Society cw1 Portfolio Assignment Sample

Introduction - Gender and Sexuality in Society cw1 Portfolio Assignment Sample

Gender and especially sexuality have thus occupied a prominent place in sociological discussions of culture, law, and the self. Topics such as violence against women, gay marriage, and wage disparity are significant in examining how power dynamics and cultural norms shape reality. These topics raise general issues of equity, diversity and the relationship between the economy, politics and civil society.

This analytical essay analyses three crucial gender and sexuality topics based on three theories: Feminist Theory and Intersectionality, Queer Theory and Late Modernity, Conflict Theory and Hegemonic Masculinity. These theoretical paradigms give somewhat different but related perspectives on why and how such matters remain and develop in contemporary societies. Gender-related Violence will be analysed utilizing Feminist Theory and Intersectionality to understand how one’s social position determines the experience of subjugation. Utilizing Queer Theory and Late Modernity will enable me to assess cultural and legal changes concerning same-sex marriage and the redefinition of the unit of family and sexuality. Furthermore, the Conflict Theory and Hegemonic Masculinity framework will explain the gender pay gap by examining how economic structures and work environments fuel gendered wage differences.

Gender-Related Violence: Feminist Theory and Intersectionality

Violence against women is a global problem where females are attacked through physical and psychological torture, rape, honour killings, trafficking and killings of females, including femicide (Thurston, Stöckl and Ranganathan, 2021). It is common to find that these acts target vulnerable women and other minorities, degrading them and perpetuating social and institutional inequalities (Yadav, 2023). It would not occur randomly, but it results from power relations and structural discrimination.

According to the theory, sex-related violence is just a reflection of patriarchal practices, which support male domination and female subordination (Tonsing and Tonsing, 2017). According to radical feminism, gender-based violence is sexist and is present in societal structures like marriage, police and media downplaying male violence against women. In contrast, liberal feminism aims to deal with these injustices via changes in laws and policies, such as laws against domestic violence and policies against workplace harassment (Kreft, 2022). Of particular interest to this writer is power and control, a concept encapsulated in feminist theory that asserts that violent relationships are sustained mentally and financially instead of physically. Another major factor that cannot be overlooked is that social enshrinement plays a part in redefining toxic masculinity that gives males the total right to dominate women, their bodies and decisions.

While feminism outlines the general analysis of intersectionality, it shows how social categories of race, class, sexual orientation, and disability come together to form layered experiences of oppression (Sikweyiya et al., 2020). Qualified research indicates that women of colour get gender-related violence in different ways due to racial discrimination, which defines their access to justice. Low-income women are often economically trapped by their perpetrators and cannot easily escape abusive relationships (Pierik, 2022). At the same time, LGBTQ+ people suffer from corrective rape and are discriminated against by the legal system. The paper proves that Intersectionality is an essential addition to the topic of gender-related violence due to exploring how multiple matrices of domination affect it (Dekel, Abrahams and Andipatin, 2018).

One of the significant examples of the discussions connected with both feminist and intersectional theories of gender velocity is the recent phenomenon of MeToo movements all over the world in response to sexual harassment and/or abuse (Thomson, 2018). The recent #MeToo movements in various industries have established that gender-based violence occurs while power dynamics permit such misconduct, and intersectional factors define the level of support that victims receive. Further, honour killings in some cultures require an understanding of the gender roles, societal roles, and roles of people in some cultures that more clearly demonstrate how patriarchy tries to control women not only through physical violence but also through other ways (Maule, 2020).

Although feminist theory and intersectionality provide valuable insights into gender-related violence, they also face criticisms (Lahiri-Dutt, 2024). Some perspectives assume a universal female experience, ignoring variations across cultures and identities. Others argue that an overemphasis on structural oppression overlooks the fact that not all men benefit equally from patriarchy, as social class and racial background also shape experiences of power and privilege (Rosenkranz, 2024). Another limitation is the tendency to focus primarily on women as victims, sometimes neglecting the fact that men and non-binary individuals can also experience gender-based violence.

Feminist theory and intersectionality offer essential analytical tools for understanding gender-related violence by revealing how patriarchal structures, power dynamics, and overlapping social identities contribute to the issue (Fotaki and Pullen, 2023). Examining real-world cases demonstrates the systemic barriers that survivors face and highlights the need for solutions through policy reforms, education, and advocacy. However, a more inclusive and intersectional feminist approach is essential to ensuring that all victims of gender-based violence receive adequate recognition and support (Alldred, 2023).

Same-Sex Marriage: Queer Theory and Late Modernity

The question of same-sex marriages has not only been central to gender and sexualities discourses, illustrating the pursuit of justice and legitimization of queer existence (Wootton et al., 2018). Throughout history, marriage has been depicted as a socially acceptable norm that affirmed homosexuality as the rightful model of gender relations. These conventions have been questioned by the performances of same-sex marriages in different countries, thus creating arguments concerning identity or equal rights and freedoms, as well as the change in relationship conventions (Maine, 2021). While some see these as signs of progress, others believe that same-sex marriage is still operating within the boundaries of a paradigm. This paper looks at queer theory and the concept of late modernity as frameworks for understanding the social changes regarding same-sex marriage and its ramifications (Smietana, Thompson and Twine, 2018).

Figure 1: The Social Imagination of Homosexuality

(Source: Hart-Brinson, 2016)

Queer theory opposes one’s ideas that gender and sexual orientation are divided into two sets of categories, where every person would have to fill one of the two categories (Smietana, Thompson and Twine, 2018). This paper further affirms this notion by proposing that heterosexuality has always been presented as the right way and/or discourse while others are considered other, deviant. From this point of view, same-sex marriage can be called both a success and a constraint. Legal recognition affords queer people fundamental civil liberties they were heretofore deprived of, but it reminds queer people that marriage is the proper state for relations (Drabble et al., 2020). However, Queer theorists contend that the campaign for same-sex marriage is more likely a way of incorporating queer identities into presumably heterosexual structures that were previously invalidated (Mezey, 2018). This critique questions how the struggle for marriage equality subverts norms and practices or expands them for a more extensive population.

Late Modernity is another perspective from which one can look at same-sex marriage. Religion and the church lose their leading positions in the representation of the interests of the collective (van den Berg, 2017). Common sense and norms depend more on the individual's subjectivity in late modern societies. Such a shift has helped in the acceptance of different relationships and families since no one is tied to traditional marriage and roles as predetermined by the past culture. Same-sex marriage can, therefore, be regarded as one additional indication of a social shift in which new identity embraces increased individual freedoms where one is free to chart his/her destiny instead of being a product of cultural and/or social proscription/dictation (Hemmatian et al., 2019).

However, the fight for same-sex marriage still has some hurdles. Legal barriers persist at the cultural and religious levels, many governments and organizations today continue to deny LGBTQ+ rights (Bohman and Rehg, 2023). Equality does not come with the legalization of marriage for same-sex couples since they are discriminated against and stigmatized in countries where the practice is admitted. Moreover, prioritizing marriage in activism helped in the legalization of same-sex marriage (Kouri, 2024). Still, it also drew attention away from other important issues like employment discrimination, lack of insurance and healthcare, and violence against the queer community.

The relationship between queer theory and late modernity opens up the production of same-sex marriage as both a progressive move and a contentious issue (Marcén and Morales, 2022). Therefore, legal acknowledgement of its identity rights for LGBTQ+ people is double-edged, with the question of to what extent marriage, a traditionally conservative concept, can contain a broad spectrum of allowances for sexual minorities (Hagai and Zurbriggen, 2022). It can be noted that the current social climate of late modernity offers spaces for further advancement; however, sustained struggle remains essential in moving equality beyond marriage towards tackling systems of oppression.

Gender Pay Gap: Conflict Theory and Hegemonic Masculinity

Gender pay disparity has remained present in labour markets around the globe, and it is a function of other structural relations embedded in the economistic frameworks (Gamage et al., 2023). Even today, women are paid less than men for identical jobs. Even with recent legislation and a more comprehensive understanding of inequality between genders, it remains an issue, as women earn, on average, less than men. However, that difference varies by industry, level of education, and race (Sobeck, 2024). Gender pay inequality reflects choices or qualifications and structures that maintain pay inequalities. Conflict theory and hegemonic masculinity are the two theories that offer insights into how social relations of power, structures, and norms contribute to the emergence of wage differentials between the two genders (Lo Bue et al., 2022).

Conflict theory is based on the Marxist understanding of society, according to which society is a collection of warring factions to obtain resources and authority (Rebadulla, 2023). All of them pinpoint the role economic relations play in reproducing class and gender hierarchies that serve to enhance the privileged position of those with social and financial capital. In this regard, gender pay results from capitalist economies relying on labour divisions to achieve higher productivity and performance. The allocation of tasks is systematically designed to perpetuate male dominance in well-paid, senior positions while tramming women to lower-paid servile positions (Rebadulla, 2023). Some cultures and traditions have not allowed women to join the workforce for they are supposed to be part of the household work, which also contributes to their weaker economy.

Another proposed posture of conflict theory is that economic conflict is maintained by formal organizations exercising authoritative power on behalf of ruling classes (You, Zhang and Song, 2022). The gender pay gap has not been eliminated because of wage discrimination only but due to several structural barriers, including Horizontal occupational segregation and weak career mobility of women. These jobs are characterized by low pay. Women dominate the caregiving, teaching, and service jobs, while men dominate the engineering, finance and production jobs, which are well-paid (Gupta, Balcom and Singh, 2022). Despite this, women often face challenges like the glass ceiling, where they are limited in their promotion opportunities to leadership positions compared to their male counterparts in the same working fields. The fact that actual and anticipated gender roles result in women being more negatively impacted through a loss or reduction of income while men are provided with a so-called fatherhood bonus carries forward the discrimination of women within economic structures (Reichelt, Makovi and Sargsyan, 2020).

Figure 2: Linking Traditional Masculinity, Aggression, and Violence

(Source: Malonda et al., 2023)

Hegemonic masculinity, a term identified in the tradition of gender studies, connects dominant types of constructs of masculinity with the discursive construction of standards and relations in the sphere of occupation (King et al., 2021). It means the dominant model of manhood that reproduces male power and economic primacy and excludes other forms of gender. The gender pay gap is much more than a financial statement. Furthermore, it also affirms cultural discourses of masculinity that privilege assertiveness, competitiveness and risk-taking (King et al., 2021). Therefore, organizational contexts that promote such behaviours are disadvantageous to women because they might have been trained to practice different leadership styles or may comprise bargaining in aspects to do with remunerations and promotions due to bias (Usman et al., 2022).

Hegemonic masculinity also comes out in the manner in which women’s work is devalued, especially in careers that are traditionally related to caregiving and emotional work. Skills involving high skills and education, such as nursing, education, and social work, are needed for men in technical or managerial fields (Ocloo et al., 2021). The belief that women would always respond to unpaid domestic duties such as child and elder care hampers them, thus limiting their capacity and willingness to seek paid work like their male counterparts (Ocloo et al., 2021). In the same way, the stereotype of men as baulkers that puts the idea that they ought to be paid better since they will represent their families by restoring their ability to pay more to men justifies pay discrimination.

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Conflict theory and hegemonic masculinity manifest most obviously in enduring wage differentials about executive positions (McCarthy, Soundararajan and Taylor, 2020). It is unsettling to note that more women are being appointed to corporate boards than in previous years. Moreover, the representation of women is much lower than that of men and women who are appointed to high-rank corporate positions are more likely to find themselves under immense pressure as regards to how they manage the company as well as how they arrive at decisions (Rakan Saadoun et al., 2023). It is significant to explain that women are promoted to leadership positions in organizations at the critical time, increasing the risk of failure. This results in a cycle when women’s leadership ability is questioned, male primacy in management positions is maintained, and the female-male wage disparity remains unchanged within the upper tiers of corporate hierarchal systems (Rakan Saadoun et al., 2023).

Therefore, the critique of the gender pay gap cannot exclude questions about policy measures and movements that try to overcome economic and socio-cultural gendered differences (Smith and Sinkford, 2022). Governments introduced equal pay for equal work practices, parent-child leave policies, and policies of transparency in wage-setting mechanisms to reduce the gap in some countries. However, the root causes are still entrenched (Smith and Sinkford, 2022). Women, through the feminist task force and other labour bodies, have fought hard to push for equal pay for equal work. However, countless corporate organizations and even policymakers continue to fight against efforts to change the patriarchal economic systems that dominate gender quotas.

Conclusion

The gender pay gap is one of the most stagnant measures of structural discrimination based on hiring preferences that are still adverse to women in the current economic and political climate. Conflict theory offers a framework for understanding wage inequality due to the current gender structure that was put in place to keep men on top of women. Capitalist labor markets actively encourage occupational segregation, slow career progression for women, and devalue labor linked to care and emotional labor, making economic disparity widespread across industries.

Hegemonic masculinity extends the ideas of cultural programs in creating workplace relations and wage systems by hammering down substantial male control in prominent administrative and well-paid positions in organizations. The belief that men are supposed to be breadwinners, together with women being socialized into caretakers, puts up with the wage differences and hinders one’s career growth and advancement. Organizational cultures that privilege stereotypically masculine characteristics like assertiveness and competitiveness are prejudicial to women, especially in negotiations and promotions. These are supplemented by structural factors, including the glass ceiling, the motherhood penalty, and low wages for feminized industries as causal factors to wage disparities.

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