Evaluating Engineering Solutions To Mitigate Coastal Erosion & Protect Shorelines From The Impacts Of Rising Sea Levels Dissertation

Chapter 1.0: Introduction :Evaluating Engineering Solutions To Mitigate Coastal Erosion And Protect Shorelines From The Impacts Of Rising Sea Levels

1.1 Introduction:Addressing Shoreline Degradation Through Engineering Interventions

In the current era, there are a lot of issues faced by people. Many of these are because of the destruction of natural resources because of both natural & man-made reasons. As a result of this, there are several ill effects of this observed. Among these different things, the main focus is gen on the erosion of the coastal area because of the forces of water acting on the seashores. It can be seen that the primary reason that is responsible for this erosion is the force acting on the shorelines because of the seawater. Moreover, the energy of the water is increasing with the increase in the level of water in the seas. The rise of the water level is the result of the different activities of humans that are causing pollution which ultimately results in rising the level of water in seas. Depending on this scenario, this research was conducted here. Through this research, it is intended to find out such solutions that can be helpful in the mitigation of the erosion of the shorelines. In other words, the engineering solutions that can protect the seawater areas from the wave actions of the seawater are intended to be found through this research. This chapter covers the details of the ideas for which this research was selected. A variety of details regarding this is presented below.

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1.2 Historical Perspective

Here, the details of the background of the topic of the research are given. It can be seen that there are a lot of reasons are there that are responsible for causing erosion of the shorelines. There are several ill effects because of the destruction of the shore area can be observed. The root of these incidents lies very deep down. The main reason for this destruction is the rise in the level of water in seas (Mamo et al. 2022). Because of the increase in the height of water, the force of impact of water on the shore also increases. The root cause of this is the rate of pollution increasing day by day. Issues like “global warming” are increasing the temperature all over the world. As a result of this, the ice of the glaciers is melting resulting in an increasing the water level of the seas. As a result of this, the formation of high waves is observed. There are similar other reasons are there that are responsible for the increase of the erosion of the shorelines. Depending on this there have been different forms of engineering measures have been developed over the past years (Strain et al. 2022). These are the ones that are implemented at the shorelines for the protection of the shorelines. Good results were obtained from these applications. However, in the current day because of the intensity of the water level rise, these traditional methods seem to be not sufficient. Hence, more advanced methods have become necessary to implement. Through this research, some of these solutions are to be found.

1.3 Ideas from Literature

The focus of this research is on the solutions for the protection of shorelines. For this, there are different forms of solutions are there. Some of these solutions are given below.

One of the best solutions that have been used for several years is seawalls. This is one of the traditional methods used for the protection of beaches. These are walls that are constructed before the beach sides (Rezaie et al. 2020). It is known that because of the shocks provided by the water on the beach sides, erosion is observed on the beaches. Hence, these vertical walls break the force effect before reaching the shorelines.

Figure 1: Risk of water level rise in sea

(Source: El et al. 2022)

Another important protective measure is the groynes. This is a special type of structure that is implemented for trapping sediments. Trapping sediments results in the stabilisation of beaches. These two are the techniques that have been used for a long time. Other than this, other methods are also there which can be helpful for the protection of beaches. One of these is the nourishment of the beaches. It can be observed that because of the erosive action of water, sand from the beaches is washed out (El et al. 2022). As a result of this, the depth of the beach is reduced further. This reduction results in the lowering of the capacity of beaches to bear the wave actions. This process consists of adding sand to the beach for the restoration of the beaches. Other than these natural processes like restoration of the dunes can also be used.

1.4 Research Topic

Shorelines of the coastal areas are affected because of the wave action of sea water. Here, different forms of bad effects that the shorelines experience because of rising water level are analyzed. For this reason, through this study it is intended to prepare such methods that have the potential to protect the shorelines (Rubinato et al. 2020). There can be two sub-divisions of this topic. The first part contains the reasons behind the increase of the water level. Similarly the later part consists of the measures for the protection of the shoreline. Details of these divisions includes the following.

The world has experienced an increased rate of erosion of shoreline in the previous few years. This is continuously increasing at a good rate. A number of reasons are behind this phenomenon. The main element that is operating this incident of erosion is the water of sea. This is the physical element that is causing the erosion. The primary principle which is behind this incident is the wave formation of sea water and its impact with the shoreline. In other words, the amount of force present in the water wave is directly proportional to the amount of erosion it results in. Nowadays, the increase in the level of water causing the wave to gain more energy. As a consequence of this, the shorelines are experiencing a more severe impact from the water waves. Hence, erosion is increasing eventually.

The main reason for the increase of this water level is the increase in the temperature of water which can also be termed “global warming” (Nazarnia et al. 2020). Hence, it is reasonable that protective measures for the shorelines are introduced.

Figure 2: Risk of water level rise in low areas

(Source: Lima et al. 2020)

The second part of this topic is the evaluation of the engineering solutions for the protection of the shorelines. There are several methods are there which can be helpful for the protection of the shores. It is very important to `determine the methods based on the current context. In the past years, the methods like seawalls alone were enough for protection (Lima et al. 2020). However, these days because of the increase in the force of water the traditional measures alone are not enough. Hence, along with the traditional measure other creative modern measures are to be imparted. These solutions are to be found in this research.

1.5 Key Concepts

Some factors are there that decide the solutions to be taken for the mitigation of the erosion of the beaches. Moreover, factors that decide the amount of erosion also play an important role in the selection of protective measures for the shorelines (Griggs & Reguero, 2021). The details of these factors and concepts are given below.

Energy of wave : It is to be noted that the amount of erosion directly depends on the energy of the water. It is because the level of water decides the force of impact on the beaches. Hence, the large the level is the more will be the impact on the shorelines.

Currents : There are seasonal variations that can be observed in the sea currents. In different seasons the force of the currents is different. In addition to this, the amount of sediment transported plays an important role (Guerry et al. 2022). The currents carry sediments with them according to the capacities of the currents.

Coast Geology : It is to be noted that the main thing that takes up the wave force is the beach itself. Hence, the material with which the beach is made is very crucial for the erosion of the beach. Beaches can be made with sand, mud or rocks. The muddy beaches are subjected to erosion more than that of the rocky beaches.

Climate : The climate of an area also plays an important role. The presence of cyclones poses more danger for the erosion of the coast.

Construction activity: This refers to the engineering activities near the coastal area. The construction activities damage the geological structures of the soils. It also reduces the capacity of bearing the loads applied because of wave actions (Le et al. 2022). As a result of this erosion of coasts accelerated.

1.6 Research Aim

Sea shores are one the most important areas for a country. It is because the economy of the country depends a lot on the condition of the beaches of the country. Beaches are such areas that generate a good amount of capital for the country. For this reason, it is needed that the condition of these areas remains well (Sharaan et al. 2022). However, in the present day, it can be noticed that because of the rise in the level of water, the erosion of the shorelines has become more active. Hence, the aim of this research is to identify or develop such practices that can be utilized for the protection of the seashores.

1.7 Research Hypothesis

Different hypotheses were considered in this research. These are the ones that can be used for the measurement of the effectiveness of the results of the research.

H0: The increase in the construction practices is one of the prime reasons for the erosion of the shorelines.

H1: The increase in the construction practices is not one of the prime reasons for the erosion of the shorelines.

H0: One of the main reasons that is operating the erosion activity of the shores is the increase in the level of the sea water.

H1: One of the main reasons that is operating the erosion activity of the shores is not the increase in the level of the sea water.

H0: The erosion of the shorelines can be reduced with the use of proper engineering techniques.

H1: The erosion of the shorelines cannot be reduced with the use of proper engineering techniques.

H0: Positive results can be obtained with the use of natural materials regarding beach protection.

H1: Positive results cannot be obtained with the use of natural materials regarding beach protection.

1.8 Research Objectives

The objectives of this research are illustrated in the following manner.

• Determination of the reasons which are responsible for the erosion of the shorelines.
• Establishment of the effects of shore erosion on the society as well as on the biodiversity
• Identification of the methods & techniques which are potential enough to mitigate the issues of shoreline erosion.
• Determination of the series of solutions that are able to solve the problem of this research.
• Identification of the materials which are the most suitable for building the protective structures.
• Comparison of among the different methods in order to find out the best way to protect the shorelines.

1.9 Research Questions

The questions of this research are given below.

• What are the main reasons behind the erosion of the shore areas?
• What are the main effects of the erosion of the shorelines?
• Who is primarily responsible for the rise in the level of water in seas?
• Why it is necessary to protect the shorelines?
• How the engineering solutions are able to protect the shorelines from the effects of the water waves?
• Why it is important to implement creative solutions rather than using traditional solutions?
• How to ensure sustainability in the process of the protection of shore areas?

1.10 Study Scope

This study has several scopes for the design of protective measures for the shores. These are given below.

Result from the traditional methods

It can be seen that because of the increased rate of water level rise the traditional methods are becoming less effective these days (Coelho et al. 2020). These require additional help from the creative new methods to support the traditional methods.

Selection of natural materials for making the solutions

It is to be noted that nature-based methods such as the use of vegetation cover, restoration of dunes, and artificial reefs prove to be effective protective solutions for the beaches.

Collection of data on different shorelines

At the coastal areas of different locations, the scenario of erosion is different because of the climate and man-made conditions (Manes et al. 2023). Depending on this, changes have to be made to the protective methods.

Management of coastal areas

This refers to the management of the shore area. It can be observed that because of more construction activities near the coastal areas, the “flora & funna” of the area is affected. Hence, these are subjected to more erosion (Jordan & Fröhle, 2022). So, the coastal areas are to be managed well.

1.11 Selection of study area

Figure 3: Effect of climate change on oceans

(Source: Hagedoorn et al. 2021)

This area of study is very important from the point of view of sustainability. The erosion of the coast can be compared with the loss of natural resources. This involves the effects of the rise of the water level in seas (Hagedoorn et al. 2021). The impact of erosion on the society and organisms of the area can also be found through this research.

1.12 Research Significance

The significance of this research is given below.

• Mitigation of the risk of the erosion of shores.
• Protection of “flora & funna”.
• Resilience of infrastructure
• Economic development through tourism, fisheries and other industries.
• Safety of the local community
• Sustainability in the developmental works

1.13 Conclusion

This chapter provides a description of the details of the initiation of the research. It is very important that the topic of the research is very clear and its significance is well understood before actually doing the research. Hence, as a primary step of this research different areas were highlighted that can give a brief of the importance, results, and effectiveness of the research. Here, the historical perspective of this topic was established first. This research is based on finding out the solutions to the erosion of the coastal shores because of the rise in the level of water in the seas. Hence, the first thing that was done was to find out the background of this topic. After that, the factors that are responsible for the level rise of water were identified. Moreover, the process of causing this erosion was also identified here. The details of the objects & aim of the research are presented in this chapter. Furthermore, the details of the questions that can be asked to check the effectiveness of the research are also presented here. The details of the significance of this research along with its importance are explained here.

Chapter 2.0 Literature Review

2.1 Introduction: Coastal Erosion and Shoreline Protection: A Literature Review on Challenges and Solutions

Sea level rise as a factor of coastal erosion is a significant problem of the global scale. Coastal areas around the globe are more susceptible to processes of both endogenous and exogenous origin with multiple socio-economic and ecological consequences. Therefore, to devise effective strategies for the prevention of these impacts more knowledge about the process of coastal erosion and engineered structures efficacy is mandatory. The objectives of this chapter are to present a comprehensive survey of the peer-reviewed literature concerning coastal erosion and shoreline protection measures. It will discuss past occurrences, the current situation and the possible forecast on coastal erosion and any possible causes and the extent of this problem. The review will assess both the conventional and contemporary engineering solutions such as seawalls, and beach nourishment, among others and evaluate its modern counterparts such as, nature-based solutions. This chapter will focus on the conceptual overviews applied to coastal management to discover the challenges and research deficiencies to improve coastal defense. This literature review will compile the results of numerous studies to present a clear and comprehensive picture of the subject to underpin the research, identify effective strategies, and inspire the creation of innovative methods to mitigate the climate change impact on shore territories.

2.2 Critical analysis of existing research

Coastal protection strategies

According to (Le Xuan et al., 2022), the paper put forward the multiple lines of defense (MLD) approach for sustainable shoreline protection under climate change. The need for this paper is justified based on the fact that the region is one of the most sensitive areas to the impacts of climate change like sea-level rise, intense wave action, which adversely affects the social-economic activities as well as natural ecosystems of the area. To elaborate on the need for efficient littoral protection methods, the study starts by describing devastating consequences of climate change on the Mekong Delta. The authors summaries and critically evaluate the current methods of coastal defense, which are classified as hard structures (for example, the seawalls, and groynes) and soft ones (for example; the methods that involve the restoration of mangrove forests, the replenishment of beaches). Taking into account the critical evaluation of the existing practices, the answer equates to the fact that although the traditional hard structures can offer protection in the short run, they cause negative impacts in the long run in terms of ecological and geomorphological changes like sediment starvation and habitat loss. Soft solutions, as the name implies, are long-term, eco-friendly, and less dependent on stocks but takes time to become effective and is also sensitive to weather conditions that affect germination.

Figure 4: Implication of the process

(Source: Le Xuan et al., 2022)

One of the biggest assets of the paper is the comprehensive evaluation of the socio-economic and environmental costs of each protection approach. Le Xuan et al. use the multi-criteria decision analysis to compare the efficiency, implement ability, and durability of different coastal protection systems. This procedure and correct methodical approach helps to find the most suitable and evenly balanced strategies for the Mekong Delta not only in terms of the environmental conditions, needs, and possible economic demands and limitations. A method specifically proposed herein is, namely, the MLD approach. Consequently, it supports the application of both hard and soft systems projects in a strategic layout for higher effectiveness. For instance, the authors recommend that mangrove restoration should be done hand in hand with the construction of offshore breakwaters for purposes of reducing wave energy leading to erosion and at the same time increasing the number of species. This approach is unique and complies with modern practices in coastal management that foster the system’s reliability based on a system of overlapping and difference.

Coastal Adaptation according to Climate Change

According to (Griggs & Reguero., 2021), the paper describes the specific initiatives to adapt coastal regions to the increasing risks of climate change and a rise in sea levels. The authors underline the necessity for the implementation of prevention strategies to reduce damaging consequences for coastal areas that are more sensitive to storms, deluges, and sand extraction. One of the paper’s major advantages is that it provides an extensive literature review which covers both the conventional and the emergent approaches to adaptation. Thus, the authors analyze hard solutions, such as the construction of seawalls and levees, as well as soft solutions comprising of beach nourishment and wetland restoration. They also explain the strengths and weaknesses of the methods, which in turn offers insight towards the prospects of both methods in the long term. For example, seawalls provide solutions such as quickly protecting the local area against floods; however, they also expose other areas to more erosion and affect sediment processes. Soft solution refers to those that have less severity on the environment however, the weak point in such solutions is that they may attract more frequent monitoring and maintenance.

Figure 5: Green to Grey Shoreline solutions

(Source: Griggs & Reguero., 2021)

First, the paper can be distinguished for the focus on the considerations regarding the implementation of adaptation strategies into the frameworks of coastal management. The study also provides the solutions as follows; engineering measures should be integrated with those supporting the use of land, coverage of ecosystems, and involving communities. Such an approach is useful when it comes to creating the framework for maintaining the stability of coastal systems that may be subjected to changes at different stages. The suggested some limitations to the paper; regarding the expressed adaptation strategies, the authors have comprehensively reviewed the subject; however, the scarcity of robust data and case examples underlining the practicability and sustainability of such approaches is noticeable. Nevertheless, there is a potential criticism that the author could provide more information about the socio-economic sides of the coastal adaptation such as the costs of adaptation, the ways of financing those costs, and the role of the local population in the decision-making concerning the coastal adaptation. m It highly relevant to the discussion on coastal adaptation because it provides an all-encompassing and comprehensive strategy for dealing with this malign phenomenon.

Civil and Environmental Infrastructures for Coastal Adaptation

According to Nazarnia et al. (2020), the study includes various civil and environmental infrastructures used in managing sea level rise in coastal regions. The strength of this paper is that it adheres to the systematic approach to conducting a literature review and synthesizing existing literature and practices on coastal defense mechanisms. The paper’s major arises from its comprehensive classification and assessment of different adaptation measures. The authors pay great attention to the categorization of these strategies into the range of hard measures and the range of soft measures; the former refers to activities like construction of seawalls and breakwaters while the latter consists of beach nourishment and wetland restoration. They compare every method in terms of efficiency, profitability, viability, and impact on the environment, thus presenting fair estimates of their benefits and drawbacks. Such a comprehensive analysis is useful in the evaluation of the compromises that define the choice of desirable adaptation strategies to suit the coastal environment.

Figure 6: process flowchart of the Study

(Source: Nazarnia et al. 2020)

The authors also warn about the need of the integration of civil engineering and environmental aspect in the development of adaptive structures. This integration is necessary when designing methods for constructing coastal infrastructure that is immune to the ravages of global warming’s effects on sea levels and that maintains the coasts’ ecological balance. Thus, the paper supports the integration of engineering measures with natural and nature-based solutions to coastal management, which reflects modern tendencies in the field. This methodology has the strength of laying strong guidelines for analyzing existing approaches but has no actual evidence and research data to support and check the efficiency of these strategies. Also, the part, where the author considers the socio-economic effects of the introduction of these infrastructures, is rather limited. To increase the usefulness of the review, the economic costs, the funding structures, and the engagement of the community need to be discussed more profoundly. Its authors’ interdisciplinary focus and comprehensive list of evaluation criteria are beneficial and informative for researchers, policymakers, and practitioners who want to increase the resilience of coastal regions. Nevertheless, the use of quantitative data as well as the extension of socio-economic function analysis would enhance the paper’s effectiveness.

Coastal protection of natural mangrove & Natural rock

Strain et al., (2022) state that natural mangrove forests are cheaper and significantly better at providing coastal protection than artificial rock revetments. The issue that the paper responds to is the necessity to assess the efficiency of natural and artificial measures applied to combat coastal erosion and sea level rise consequences. This paper therefore has the advantage of covering a broad protective service function of mangroves and rock revetments. The structure of the choice between these two approaches is based on the usage of such concerns as wave attenuation, sediment stabilization, and ecological advantages. The evaluation of this kind gives a fairly comprehensive idea of the comparative advantages and vice versa of each method. The paper also does a good job of pointing out these positives of mangrove forests over rock revetments; the provision of habitats and sequestration of carbon.

Figure 7: Rock vs Mangrove for Costal protection

(Source: Strain et al., 2022)

That makes the study empirical, which is another important advantage it has over other similar research works. The author employs both field data and controlled experiments to substantiate their arguments making their work credible and relatively resistant to criticisms. This kind of approach is especially useful for benchmarking or proving the actual value in crushing application, hence supporting the argument that mangroves should be fully incorporated in to the plans for the coastal region. The weakest aspect of the analysis is the comparison of the effectiveness of the proposed solutions; moreover, the socio-economic requirements for implementing them could also be examined in more detail. For instance, the acquisition costs, recurring expenses associated with the equipment, and social and economic effects on the people in the surrounding areas are explored minimally. These are aspects that the policymakers ought to appreciate, especially when in a dilemma over which strategy to implement. Additionally, the paper could have focused on how large-scale mangrove restoration presents certain difficulties regarding the availability of land, its sustainability once a claim to the land has been made, and the possible conflicts that arise when other land uses are considered.

Nature conservation through costal engineering

Jordan and Fröhle (2022) provide a comprehensive and engaging summary of coastal ecosystems as NbS for coast protection pointing out the possibility to contribute to classical coastal engineering with nature conservation. It should be noted that their paper can be viewed as a valuable addition to the list of papers which are aimed at promoting effective and environmentally friendly management strategies within the coastal zone. A major advantage of the paper is the literature review where the author has produced a synthesis of what is known about the coastal ecosystem such as mangrove ecosystems, salt marshes, seagrasses, and coral reefs. The authors give good examples how these ecosystems support the societies by covering services like wave breakage, sediment prevention and erosion reductions. Through articulating the diverse advantages of NbS Jordan and Fröhle also stress the necessity to apply the principles of ecosystem rehabilitation in coast defence.

Figure 8: Natureal based solution over the years

(Source: Jordan and Fröhle, 2022)

At the same time, it is necessary to note that the given paper is also successful in the critical identification of the issues and the shortcomings of implementing NbS. In the article, the authors describe factors like the variability of the ecosystem performance, the requirement of detailed site-specific data, and the compatibility between objectives of conservation and people activity. This balanced perspective is important in explaining the implementation factors of NbS in various coastal settings. It is also observed that the structure of the paper lacks the analysis of certain socio-economic factors related to NbS implementation. Thus, although the authors provide a general understanding of the costs and benefits associated with the implementation of NbS, the questions concerning the economic rationality of their application, sources of funding, and policy requirements for wide dissemination are left beyond the scope of this paper. Discussions on aspects such as these would give a more comprehensive outlook as to how feasible NbS is and how it can be scaled.

Secondly, though the paper focuses on the environmental advantages of NbS, it can also discuss the compatibility of such measures with the existing hard infrastructures. Examining such a symbiosis of combined NbS and Infrastructure application might provide tangible ideas on how these methods work in harmony to improve coastal protection.

Protecting coastline from climate change

According to (Rubinato et al., 2020) the paper proposed an original vision of the use of green and blue infrastructures in tackling floods in coastal zones due to climate change, although this study is a pilot experimental investigation that presents non-sustainable solutions. This paper forms a rich contribution to the literature of coastal engineering especially in relation to sustainability. Another strength is the fact that the study adopts an experimental approach hence offering actual data on sustainable coastal protection measures. The authors apply a number of methods and procedures where actual implementation is not possible, which provides good information regarding performance in the controlled setting. The given approach makes it possible to contribute a serious and profound analysis of the applicability and efficiency of the suggested solutions.

Figure 9: Sustainable Coastal protection methods

(Source: Rubinato et al., 2020)

The paper explains how one can apply or adopt the principles of ecological engineering with focus on such aspects as application of natural materials and plantations to reinforce coastal barriers. A good example should be the integration of bio-physical processes, which is necessary to deliver sustainable coastal systems, evolution and protection models. Thus, showing the effectiveness of these combined strategies the study adheres to modern trends in coastal management. The initial structure of the study also implies that conclusions are drawn based on a small amount of data and small-scale research trials. Further, large-scale field investigation of the effectiveness of the proposed methods and the durability of the results is needed. Also, the paper lacks adequate information regarding the socio-economic consequences of implementing these sustainable strategies such as costs for organizations and utility to community members.

Approach to stabilise the coastal slopes

According to (Vieira, 2021) the papers carries out a literature review of an original strategy for coastal protection from erosion called “Engineering with Nature” (EWN). In this regard, this paper offers a unique and significant contribution to the field by stressing the need of an approach using natural ideas and engineering solutions to build efficient coastal protection systems. The proposed strategy of EWN development has quite many advantages, and the author of the paper succeeded in its presentation fairly well. Vieira successfully explains how and why using natural barriers: mangroves, dunes, and reefs increases coastal defense and offer more values. The paper states the variety of positive outcomes of EWN such as conservation of biodiversity, carbon fix, and enhancement of recreational access which are seldom provided by hard-engineered strategies. The paper also features well-coordinated case studies that explain the successful leads of EWN in different geographical regions. The above mentioned are examples that help support EWN and also demonstrate that such a system is feasible in any coastal ecosystem. The individual cases also illustrate how interdisciplinary cooperation is critical when developing and executing EWN initiatives. The developed pattern of the paper reveals the following limitations. Largely, all of the potentials of EWN have been elaborated while the paper seems to be lacking the thorough examination of the difficulties and disadvantages of this approach. For example, first of all, costs, which are connected with infrastructure creation, as well as possibilities for its usage, are not deeply discussed, requirements for infrastructure, which is necessary for sustainable agriculture development, are not investigated as it is necessary, possible conflicts with other types of land use and infrastructure are not analyzed or explained in detail. Conquering these threats is vital for achieving the realism and further growth of EWN’s idea. Besides, the paper would benefit from code examples or concrete, numerical results with associated metrics to support the author’s opinion.

Coastal Communities adaptation for climate Changes

According to (Sinay & Carter., 2020) the paper offers a detailed review of adaptation measures about properties and local governments of coastal areas affected by climate change. It can be stated that their paper is valuable as it provides practical recommendations and underscores the significance of local approaches to climate adaptation. The paper has significant strengths in one of the key areas, which is the discussion of the various adaptation measures, from the most structural such as the seawalls, and breakwaters to the more structural or biome measures such as wetland restoration, and dunes stabilization. In showing the whole spectrum of strategies, the authors reveal that climate change mitigation requires a combination of approaches due to the systemic nature of the issues it raises and the constant changes therein.

The authors appropriately highlight the use of local governments and communities in the use of those adaptation measures. It claims that local stakeholders are the most competent and knowledgeable when it comes to identifying the nature and extent of risks and assets in concrete regions hence they should play a significant role in the adaptation process. One must admit that such a focus on local governance and community engagement is a major advantage, as it stresses the context-sensitivity of the problem and bottom-up approaches. To be more specific, it is necessary to note that the economic consequences of the proposed adaptation actions could be discussed in the paper more thoroughly. As such, the authors are aware of the potential drawbacks expressed more specifically in terms of costs leading to a series of calls and suggestions the examination of which the authors could increase the focus of the economic practicalities of the recommendations, for instance, cost-effectiveness analyses, fiscal sources or fiscal motivations. Furthermore, the paper could be supplemented by the analysis of more real-life studies regarding adaptation processes in various coastal areas and the identification of the best practices in this field

Coastal Adaptation Strategies

Bongarts Lebbe et al. (2021) provide a detailed guide on how to come up with the strategies for adapting to impacts of sea level rise along the coastal regions. In this regard the paper can be viewed in the context of major contribution to the field of coastal management, which incorporates scientific, economic and social factors.

These action plans are described to also adhere to aspects of economic feasibility and also social amenability. This integrative work guarantees the fact that solutions proposed are progressive and could practically be achieved by the mentioned coastal societies. The integration of the diversification process to incorporate other stakeholders’ viewpoints is also a component that is extremely praiseworthy, as it involves the community in the design process and optimizes the potential for adaptation.

Figure 10: Sea level growing adaptation strategies

(Source: Bongarts Lebbe et al. (2021)

The authors also describe several cases that explain these incidents and discuss how the use of their framework can help in various coastal environments. These cases are exemplary and can be broadly applied in regard to the relevance of the described strategies shown by the author which can be implemented in different geographical and demographic contexts. Incorporation of quantitative findings in their recommendations serves to strengthen the validity of the authors’ propositions. Although the conceptual framework is comprehensive, the operationalization of the framework may be complex and thus present some challenges, especially to the rural and other resource-scarce settings. The paper would also have greatly benefited from a more elaborate debate on how these barriers could be surmounted; possible avenues include opportunities for financing and empowering “social investors”. Also, the case studies are quite enlightening; however, examples of other nations, especially those that are low-income ones, are missing.

Climate change adaptation in coastal Zones

Abija et al. (2020) give a comprehensive analysis on the effects of relative sea level rise, spatial and temporal changes in coastline and coastal erosion on the Niger Delta, Nigeria. The paper is very informative and insightful in the case of climate change effects locally and hence useful in the development of regional strategies of climate change adaptation and coastal management. One of the significant assets of the paper is that the author has focused on the vulnerable area – the Niger Delta, as this area is already threatened by sea level rise because of the severe geographical and socio-economic characteristics of the region. This way, the authors stay close to a specific area that offers a great geographical and cultural focus for a detailed description. Overall, the authors present the results of sophisticated empirical analysis accompanied by satellite imagery and historical data, which makes it possible to trust the conclusions made.

Figure 11: Study area

(Source: Abija et al. 2020)

In essence, the paper does a good job narrating the coastal erosion problem under diverse drivers, which are natural and man-made. When implementing such a view, one is reminded that coastal erosion is a complex issue that requires an intricate management framework that naturally involves both the environment and the people. However, as it has already been mentioned, the paper shows quite a good ability to identify the issue but fails to offer detailed ad effective adaptation measures. During the discussion of climate change adaptation and coastal zone management the focus stays pretty general, without concrete and specific, on the case of the Niger Delta, suggestions that could be beneficial for policy-makers and managers. Also, the paper needs enhancement on the availability of funding as well as the action plan of implementing the indicated adaptation measures.

Coastal protection approach

Mamo et al. (2022) introduced a new approach for the adaptation of coastal areas that calls for considering both ecological and social benefits besides traditional constructs of coastal defense. The paper is published in Ocean and coastal Management and in it, the strategies recommended are much wider than structural modifications for ecological and communal welfare improvements.

It is necessary to mention powerful framework which entwines environmental sustainability with social resilience. Thus, by promoting nature-based solutions, the authors stress the twofold advantage of improving both the biological richness of the area and the community assets. This approach not only avoids coastal erosion, but it also supports provision of habitats as well as carbon stock which are vital in any climate change conservation. The paper has several samples of integrated coastal management practices, empirical evidence and case that has been used effectively in the course of the paper. It can also be said that while discussing adaptation measures, the authors pay much attention to the community aspects; thus, the measures introduced are quite comprehensible and acceptable for the stakeholders. It involves the community in the project which is crucial in both the achievements of the long-term goals of coastal adaptation projects as well as for its sustainability. While the need to incorporate the measures to sustainable environment and society is well explained, there lacks sufficient information on the economical aspect of the measures, and the associated costs. Incorporation of these aspects would offer a fair outlook in helping the policymakers in policy formulation.

2.3 Comprehensive review

Studies of coastal adaptation to climate change and sea-level rise show a broad spectrum of strategies across the literature, as well as variations of conventional and progressive solutions. Conventional solutions like the seawalls, groynes and revetments have remained the most widespread solutions of the coast protection during the years. These hard engineering solutions are efficient in offering an initial shield against waves as well as erosion but always ensue in eminent social and ecological costs. For instance, (Griggs & Reguero., 2021) observe that as mitigation structures like seawalls work in preventing damage to infrastructure, they contribute to erosion close to the structures and interrupt natural coastal processes. On the other hand, nature-based solutions (NbS) are being considered as effective solutions to the identified threats. Such as the restoration of mangroves, salt marshes and dune system as they create a coat that protects coastal areas as well as improve the ecosystem services and effectively boost the biodiversity.

However, approaches that include both hard engineering and NbS are becoming more and more suggested. For instance, while outlining various mitigation measures like the renewable energy technologies, bridge types and permeable groynes and effects of combinations thereof on the coastal sediment transport, the introduction of the use of permeable groynes, which allow sediment movement while providing erect structural stability, is made (Mamo et al. 2022). Hence, these strategies seek to maximize the advantages of both the conventional and the nature-based practices for maximum sustainability and flexibility.

It was established that integrated social participation for community and stakeholder engagements are indispensable for the success of any coastal adaptation plan needed for this kind of region. Some papers emphasize on community engagement and raise awareness to receiving inputs from the population and integrating their ideas in the development and decision making processes (Sinay & Carter,. 2020). The approach also promotes the mainstreaming of the adaptation measures making them acceptable within the communities and making them relevant in the cultures and contexts. The reviewed studies signify that further development of such ecosystems and transition to more complex and nature-based solutions for coast protection is a logical continuation of the discussed topic. This paper has demonstrated that better coastal adaptation strategies entail blending hard engineering with nature-based measures as well as including communities’ input for more robust and sustainable solutions that also help the community and the environment.

2.4 Theories & Model

Theories:

Concepts that are used in protection and adaptation of coastal areas belong to the field of engineering and ecological sciences as well. Bruun Rule is one of the initial theories legalizing that retreat of the shoreline is directly proportional to the raise of the sea level. It implies that the rate of shoreline erosion in relation to the rise in sea level will be proportional to the rise and the shorelines will retreat inland and up seaward accordingly. Although the Bruun Rule is useful, it may have significant drawbacks mainly due to its inability to factor other factors that affect coastal sedimentation (Miura et al., 2021). Updated models such as the Coastal Vulnerability Index (CVI) involve factors such as the geophysical characteristics, coastal gradient, and wave elevation giving a broader and more elaborate depiction of the coast’s susceptibility or its ability to bear the impact of the hazards.

Models:

In the discourse on climate adaptation, NbS models are increasingly finding a place in decision making processes. These models concern themselves with the use of natural systems and environment to avoid the effects of coastal hazards (Mucova et al., 2021). For instance, the Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA) model focuses on integrating biological diversity and ecosystem resources to other strategies to manage consequences of climate change. The equilibrium considers ecological, social and economic components recommending proper management. In the same perspective another model is the Dynamic Adaptive Policy Pathways (DAPP) that is aimed at the design of more strategic policy pathways with dynamic policy options that can be adjusted according to the changing conditions and the level of risk concerning global warming.

2.5 Conceptual framework

Figure 12: Conceptual Frame Work

(Source: Self-made in draw.io)

2.6 Key issues & Research problems

 The issues of coastal erosion and sea-level rise involve complex problems that should be understood in terms of critical theoretical concepts and research questions. As pointed out by various scholars, these tasks are closely connected with the processes inherent in the natural environment as well as with human initiatives making the task even more challenging since an interdisciplinary approach is needed to find the optimal interventions.

1. Impact of Climate Change: Among them, the most acute one is the rapid climate change which boosts the speed of sea-level rise and number and power of storms. From the temperature rise, the polar ice caps and glaciers are melting and this is resulting to high sea levels. Consequently, the storm surges and the resulting flooding increase in their intensity and significantly affect the erosion of shorelines. Climate change research must now be directed towards future climate possibilities and how these may affect the coastal areas in order to provide mitigation measures.
2. Ineffectiveness of Traditional Engineering Solutions: The traditional hard structural measures which have been in practice for many decades include seawalls, groynes, and revetments. But these structure are usually incapable of establishing long term permanence. This can affect natural coastal functions interfering with sediment retention in the nearshore and resulting to erosion downstream and preferential habitat destruction (Dedekorkut-Howes et al., 2020). Moreover, the costs of constructing as well as maintaining these structures are relatively expensive and as such, their application is limited. They highlighted the importance of a focused search for truly effective methods that would not lose their efficacy over time.
3. Nature-Based Solutions (NbS): More innovative methods typically include the practice of nature-based solutions which include re-establishing mangroves, dunes, and wetlands. They can improve the splice of species, act as natural barriers against the storm surge and store carbon. However, when it comes to executing NbS, several complications arise, such as raising funds, lobbying people, and long-term management of the rehabilitated habitats. Studying is needed on effectiveness of NbS in different environmental conditions, and approaches on how to incorporate them into the plans for sustainable coastal management.
4. Socio-Economic Impacts: Flooding and shoreline insecurity cause socio-economic losses that include people’s sources of income, property prices, and business revenues (Ware et al., 2020). It is conceived that vulnerable people especially from developing countries bear the brunt of the impact problems due to numerous constraints such as inadequate resources and facilities.
5. Policy and Governance: Coastal protection strategies must incorporate sound policy and strong governance systems for both centralized and decentralized coordination between levels of government and actors. Current practices and policies are not dynamic which can cope with the changing environment and these problems requires an inter-disciplinary solution. There is a need to pay attention to the new and promising paradigms of governance like adaptive management and collaborative decision making in response to increased vulnerability of coastal regions.
6. Public Awareness and Engagement: Informing the population and increasing its awareness regarding threats and available methods of combating coastal erosion and sea-level rise is critical to obtaining support for adaptation. Outreach needs research on how communication channels and other educative programs can be used to create awareness and participation in the management of coastlines.

2.7 Conclusion

Sea level rise and coastal erosion are problems that require a complex and holistic solution since they affect the whole system. Through this literature review, the complications of these issues are further stressed, making it apparent that innovative approaches which move beyond engineering are called for. Nature based solutions seem to be viable alternatives but the respective practices incorporate financial, social and ecological challenges. It is also found that socio-economic aspects of protective measures are important, where the poor are provided priority and that measures of adaptation are the sustainable. Moreover, adequate and well-developed policies and governance mechanisms are essential for managing the interconnections and cohesiveness of stakeholders’ activities. Special focus should be paid to data collection and monitoring in order to assess the state of coasts and the efficiency of protective functions. Community involvement is important and acknowledging and enlightening the public ensures that there is reception and support of the adaptive solutions. Mitigating the effects of coastal erosion and rising sea levels requires the coordinated efforts of various fields, new approaches to research and policy development. It is crucial to acknowledge that the climate change impacts are affecting coastal areas and by combining both time-tested and existing nature-based approaches within the socio-economic and environmental context, one can identify suitable strategies for effective and sustainable coastal protection.

Chapter 3.0: Research Methodology

3.1 Introduction:Assessing Effective Solutions for Coastal Erosion and Sea Level Rise

This section outlines the approach utilized when analyzing potentially viable options for combating coastal erosion and thus maintaining shores from rising sea levels. It outlines how one can assess the effectiveness of different methods of combating shoreline erosion and natural as well as manmade options. In this, both qualitative and quantitative data is collected to identify the best ideas in the mitigation and prevention of impact on the coastal areas, the research is vital in coastal and all issues to do with shoreline preservation. There is a clear step-by-step procedure on how to evaluate possible prevention of coastal erosion and rise in sea level. It emphasizes the quantitative and qualitative research analysis of the effectiveness of methods of coastal conservation. This work seeks to determine the most efficient ways of practicing sediment control and shore conservation since the two sources of information from natural and artificial measures are integrated. This research also considers timely solutions, as well as the consequences that will manifest in the distant future, so that only effective and at the same time environmentally friendly solutions are chosen. This kind of painstaking scrutinization is vital when undertaking benchmarks to settle on objective solutions compatible with the protection of the environment and the realistic management of erosion.

3.2 Method Outline

This uses a significant way for assessing solutions for protection of coastal areas from erosion and shoreline from rise in sea levels. First, a literature review will involve on the current information and understanding of coastal erosion, shoreline management plans, and sea level changes. This review will also explore the journal articles, technical reports as well as case studies to highlight the previous and current management methods and measures of erosion prevention including natural methods and methods (Alves et al. 2020). Whereas literature review will precede it in the current research, empirical data will be later gathered by means of, for example, field surveys or experimental settings. Evaluations will include targeted field visits to well-defined coastal areas to investigate the state of Coastline Erosion’s prevention at the time of the research. This will comprise photo documentation, site surveys that would help in measuring the length of coastlines and interviews with the stakeholders to further understand more about the experience with erosion, and the existing remedies. Simple interventions discovered using natural materials will be pilot plan introduced in definite locations to find out the feasibility. There will be important measures including wave energy, waves carrying capacity of sediments, and the materials’ ability to withstand wave force. This data will undergo the quantitative and qualitative analysis. For quantitative analysis, statistical methods will be employed in evaluating the effectiveness of different protection measures While for qualitative analysis, it will involve thematic analysis of the stakeholders’ response and Socio-environmental impacts assessment (Vozzo et al. 2021). Therefore, the work shall involve a comparative analysis of various protective techniques in order to ascertain the most efficient as well as the most sustainable shoreline protective technologies within the context of cost control and environmental pollution.

3.3 Research Philosophy

This research would therefore be classified as pragmatic, as it seeks to emphasize the need to gather the outcomes, and the application of solutions towards coastal protection initiatives. It is also suggested that pragmatism accepts the qualitative and quantitative approaches given the fact that issues like coastal erosion and shoreline protection are multifaceted.

Figure 13: Pragmatic Philosophy

(Source: Self-created)

The focus of this analysis is pragmatic by stressing what works with practical outcomes and varied approaches to real-life affairs, where methods can be adjusted based on. In this strategy, it is necessary to bridge the gap between the theoretical framework and application, where produces informations, evidence-based recommendations on how best to address the issue of coast erosion and enhance the shoreline resilience.

3.4 Research Approach

This research adopts a pragmatic approach of the worth and usefulness of solutions to problems of shoreline protection. Both the descriptions and the numbers are included in pragmatism because the problem of coastal erosion and shoreline preservation is multifaceted and requires an approach of the same type. This ideology embraces a cyclical approach since it is based on the actual implementing of methods and getting an overall view of different approaches and methods in practice hence allowing methods to be adjusted when empirical evidence is discovered (Toimil et al. 2020). This strategy aims to bridge the theory and practice in an effort to get a practical applicable research that addresses the problem of coastal erosion and vulnerability. Understanding that the problem of coastal erosion and shoreline protection is fairly multifaceted, the methodology is based on both descriptive and quantitate approaches to provide the final evaluation. It is a cyclic process by which hypotheses developed in academic papers are taken to the field and can be modified bit by bit after real-life testing. This dynamic technique ensures that theoretical models put forward are well translated into functional practices (Salauddin et al. 2021). The focus of the research is to help to present the practical, proven methods increasing the coastal protection dealing which the problem of coast erosion and constantly updating the strategies in preferences to the new data.

3.5 Population & Sample Background

Population research

The data of this research include different forms of data from a variety of populations. However, one thing is common in them. It is that all of these populations live close to the coastal areas. It can be seen that with the rise of the level of the sea, there are many ill effects of this can be observed (Strain et al. 2020). One of the most critical effects of this is that erosion of the land beside the sea is observed. The main thing that research considers is the effects of the water level rise on the population living beside the sea area. It is also intended to found that what are the measures that people have taken and are planning to take for the mitigation of this ill effect. There are different sources from where data about this can be collected (Nielsen et al. 2022). This includes literary works of industry experts, reports of governmental bodies, case studies and projects made on the “coastal areas”. There are different forms of data from these sources were collected. The main focus areas include management of the coastal areas, the pattern of the change of climate and its impact, and the possible solutions implemented for the protection of the shorelines. The different aspects of the selection of samples are provided below.

Review Scope

Geographical area- It can be observed that this research is based on the coastal areas. It is because the rise of sea level mainly affects the coastal areas. Hence, here the main focus is on the coastal planes. The different forms of solutions that were implemented in different parts of the world for the protection of the shorelines were reviewed here.

Timeline- This depends on the time range of data that was considered here. In this research, data of a decade or more is considered. This data includes the data on the change of climate, rate of erosion of the shoreline, and measures taken for the protection of the shorelines over the past years (Smith et al. 2020). Moreover, the potential techniques that can be used in the future are also present here.

Figure 14: Types of Solution

(Source: Self-created)

Nature of solution

Structural- This consists of engineering measures like “seawalls”, breakwaters, groins, & revetments.

Non-structural- This is different from the structural solutions. In this, methods like nourishment of beaches, restoration of dunes, and use of plants along the shorelines are present.

Hybrid- The different studies considered here specify that, if a combination of these structural & non-structural solutions can be combined making hybrid solutions, then it is more beneficial.

3.6 Data Sources

Journals

There are many “academic journals” available that can provide essential data about this research. These can divided into different categories. These are journals on the research of coastal areas, details of coastal engineering, and managing the ocean and its habitat (Smith et al. 2020). All of these are key sources for this research data.

Reports of the government bodies

Government bodies can be one of the key sources for the data of this research. There are three particular agencies that can provide the most relevant data on this. These are the “Geological survey” department, “Ocean & atmospheric administration” department, and “Environmental protection” department (Bitan & Zviely, 2020). These are the rich sources of data on the erosion of the coastal areas, the rise of the water sea, and the effectiveness of the different engineering solutions against erosion.

Industrial works

Because of the position value for the potential of business activities, coastal areas are suitable for construction works. Hence, different forms of construction projects are observed around the sea locations (Schoutens et al. 2020). The companies that build projects in these places collect the site data minutely. The reports of these coastal projects contain significant data on these coastal areas. Hence, these can act as important sources for this research.

Figure 15: Data Sources

(Source: Self-created)

Case Studies

This is referred to as the study of a project or a study on the coastal areas. These studies give insights into the area. Case studies like this from the different parts of the world were collected (Polk et al. 2022). All of these studies contain the details of the different engineering solutions that were implemented in those places for the mitigation of the shoreline error.

Environmental data

This is the data that primarily consists of the data on climate change and the effects of that on the life of humans, flora & funna. This data can be obtained from the agencies responsible for checking the change of climate.

Reports of international organizations

There are national organizations that can provide valuable data on this matter. Some of these are UNEP, World Bank and others (Pinto et al. 2020). These agencies give the perfect data on the effects of the change of climate on the coastal areas & their ecosystems.

3.7 Methods & Techniques

There are a set of steps were taken in order to do this research. These steps all together obtain results about the research. The details of these steps are given below.

Literature Review

This is the 1st step of this research. It is about reviewing the literature. It can be seen that there are many literary works about the topic of this research present in actual practice. These are the ones that contain data on the change of climate, reasons for the rise of the level of seawater, the effects of this rise on the coastal areas, and the potential solutions for the mitigation of these ill effects (Ollerhead et al. 2022). There are different categories of literature which means different forms of literary sources were used for this research. These are “academic articles”, reports of the different government agencies, reports of the projects near the coastal areas, and others. In this review, data from these sources was collected. The data give the details of the change of climate, effects of the climate change and the solutions that can be implemented for this. Moreover, it also provides data on the extent of sustainability of these solutions.

Collection of data

Data is the most important thing that is the most crucial thing for the research. This is necessary for obtaining the results of the research. Also, the sources selected for the collection of data is also very important. On the basis of the source of data the “data quality” depends. There were a variety of data was collected. This includes the rate of erosion because of the rise in the water level in seas, and future projections of the potential rise of water levels (de et al. 2021). Other than this, data on the engineering methods that can be used for the protection of slopes from the increase in water level was collected. After this, the collected data was divided into different categories. The category contained the different geographical areas, the effects on these areas, and the methods implemented in these places for the mitigation of these instances.

Analysis of Data

Analysis of data is another important part of research. In this, the collected data is analysed to find out the results from the data. The analysis is performed in order to identify the patterns of the erosion of the coastal areas. It also determines the trends of the sea currents for the erosion of the coastal places. Moreover, the current measures and the measures that can be implemented in the future are identified through the research (Smith et al. 2020). In the process of analysis, the different identified mitigation measures were compared with each other. This provided the most useful method for determining the best method for controlling erosion of coastal planes. For doing the analysis. All the collected were studied thoroughly. After this, different conclusions were reached from the study.

Analysis of Case Study

There are different forms of sources that were used to collect data for this research. Among these one of the most important data was case studies. It is the report of projects that are prepared after the completion of the project. In this research also, there were different case studies selected (Ciampa et al. 2021). These were on different topics such as the change of coastal climate, the rise of sea level and its effects, and the engineering methods that were applied in the different parts of the world for the mitigation of ill effects of the water level rise. These “case studies” were analysed and studied thoroughly to find out essential data from these.

Reporting

This is the last part of this research. In this, all the results obtained and the things that were understood were collected in a place. It means making a report on the entire work. In this process, all the results from the review of the literature, analysis of data, and “case studies” were collected together. The data was about the effects of the rise of seawater levels in the coastal area and the possible engineering methods that can be implemented for the mitigation of these effects (Schoutens et al. 2020). Also, the methods used in different parts of the world for the protection of shorelines are also present in this data. All of these were collected and written in the form of a report.

3.8 Variables & Key Concepts

Variables

The variables that are considered in this research are given below.

Location

• Coastal areas all over the world
• Tide characteristics of the locations
• Change of climate of the locations

Nature of solution

• Structural methods such as groins, revetments, seawalls, and breakwaters
• Non-structural methods such as nourishment of beaches, shoreline living, and restoration of dunes
• Hybrid methods in which a combination of the above two methods is done

Effectiveness Matrix

• Decreasing the rate of erosion
• Structures with more durability & stability
• Effectiveness of non-structural methods in the protection of shorelines.

Impact on the environment

• Effect on the biodiversity of the coastal areas
• Changing pattern of the transport of sediments
• Change of hydrodynamics of the coastal areas
• Environmental sustainability

Economical considerations

• Cost of construction of engineering measures
• Cost of maintenance of engineering measures
• Return obtained from the solutions
• Other economic benefits such as tourism

Adaptability

• Solutions that can restrain the future rise of the sea level
• Solutions that can bring down climate change

Involvement of stakeholders

• Engagement of the communities in the work of the protection of the slopes.
• Involving the stakeholders in the process of implementation of engineering solutions

Regulations

• Policies made by the governmental agencies for the protection of the coastal lands.
• Legal framework for the smooth implementation of engineering measures for the protection of shorelines

Key Concepts

Erosion of coast

This is defined as the removal of coast or beach materials because of the wave action of seawater. It is also considered because of human activities along the shoreline.

Rise of sea level

There are different reasons that are responsible for causing the sea level to rise. The main reason behind this is the change in the conditions of climate. The most critical change in this is the rise of the earth`s temperature. Because of this, the glaciers of the pole areas are melting continuously. This results in increasing the level of seawater (Zulfakar et al. 2020). Hence, the wave actions on the shorelines are getting more severe day by day.

Protection of shoreline

This includes the different methods that are used for the protection of the shorelines.

Structural solutions

It includes construction activities for the protection of the shorelines

Figure 16: Beach Nourishment

(Source: Zulfakar et al. 2020)

Non-structural solutions

This is different from the “structural methods”. In this focus is given on the natural methods for the protection of slopes.

Sustainability

This involves implementing solutions that are eco-friendly and do not cause any pollution.

Return from the solution

This includes the financial return that can be obtained from the implemented solutions in the future.

3.9 Sampling Procedure, Data Collection & Recording Instrument

The procedure of sampling can be divided into some steps. These are given below.

Aligning with the objectives

This involves the selection of such sources that are guided by the objectives of the research. It helps in determining the specific data that is required for the research.

Criteria of inclusion

Criteria of inclusion

• The papers that have the details of the engineering measures taken for the protection of the shorelines
• Papers presenting the impact of the rise of seawater on the coastal areas
• All the data taken here from the past decade
• Reports of the governmental agencies related to this topic

Criteria of exclusion

• Papers that do not reflect the details of the protection of shoreline
• Papers that do not give data on the method that should be followed for this kind of research.
• Papers that are in a language other than English

Search of literature

There are different sub-items are included in this. These are given below.

Database- The database that was used here for finding out the literature is “Google Scholar”. From this, all the data for this research was obtained.

Keywords- To find out the correct literature, there were some specific keywords were used. These are erosion of the coastal areas, protection of shorelines, rise of sea water level, engineering solutions for coastal protection, nourishment of beaches, seawalls, shoreline living and others (Jordan & Fröhle, 2022).

Operations (boolean)- These are the items that were used to modify the searched keywords. Examples of this are “and”, “not”, “or” etc.

Screening

This includes the selection of relevant data after screening. There were two types of screenings were used here. These are given below.

Primary screening- In this, the “abstracts”, & “titles” were analysed in order to decide the relevance of the paper.

Detailed screening- In this process, the entire paper was studied to find out the relevance of the paper.

Data Extraction

For the extraction of data, there were some factors were selected. These factors have the potential to provide essential data about the research. These factors as below.

• Geographical location
• Nature of engineering solutions
• Effectiveness of the solutions
• Evaluation of the solutions
• Impact on the environment
• Impact on the economy
• Adaptation to the rise of water level in the future
• Details of the methods that can be used for this kind of research

Analysis

The extracted data was used to find out the patterns of erosion, and trends of the water level rise. In the analysis, the gaps present in the different literature reviewed here were also done (Morris et al. 2021). From the findings of the analysis, relevant conclusions on the topic were made.

3.10 Research Ethics

This research provides high ethical standards as a way of minimizing any sort of unethical practices in the research. The essential prerequisite of using stakeholder interviews is that all respondents in such an interview will sign informed consent, and the anonymity and confidentiality will be respected (Gijsman et al. 2021). The gathering of data shall be associated with clear and cordial intentions and free from intents and purposes of deceit and trickery. Environmental evaluation will be conducted keenly with little disturbance to the environment and other organisms. Sources of data will be represented as complete, accurate, and truthful, but shall state the limitations of the research and conflict of interest interest wherever relevant. The will adhere to institutional and regulatory standards concerning ethics thus ensuring ethical practice in the research.

3.11 Conclusion

This is the chapter that presents the methods that were followed in doing this research. The main topic of this research was the engineering solutions that can be implemented for the protection of shorelines. It can be observed that because of the rise of the sea level, the severity of the wave actions is increasing day by day. The main reason behind this is the change in climate because of pollution. Hence, the shorelines are getting affected by the wave action. This needs to be minimized using engineering solutions to protect the shoreline. Here, the description of the methods of how to find out the effective solutions that are really helpful in this is described. It consists of the nature of the data that was collected in this research. It also describes the sources used for the collection of data. The method of screening data from the collected data is presented in this chapter. Details of the method of analysis that was done in this research are given here. The entire method used by the researcher for this research is given here.

Chapter 4: Findings and Results

Introduction:Coastal Erosion Trends, Sea-Level Impact, and Mitigation Effectiveness

The discovery and evaluation of the effects of increased sea level on coastal erosion, and determining the efficiency of engineering and bio-physical measures for this problem are crucially discussed in the Findings and Analysis chapter. This is the concluding chapter of the work where all information gathered from various sources such as scientific reports, archives, and examples of successful implementation of anti-erosion measures, are analyzed to reveal general tendencies and results of the research in the field of coastal erosion. The characteristics of the chapter are that first of all, the trends in the coastline erosions are discussed, then the impacts of sea-level rise are reviewed, and finally, the assessment of the conventional engineering interventions and nature-based solutions are provided The action research study adopted a both quantitative and qualitative method of data collection. The more qualitative data, including the rates of erosion and sea levels, was obtained from credible databases and published researches. Essential qualitative affirmations for elaborating the findings were obtained from routines as well as case studies and expert’s interviews that added the contextual view and true life picture. This qualitative and quantitative method of data collection is very essential as it helps in eliminating redundancy and inconsistency in the data collected.

Various graphs and tables are used frequently in this chapter to help present the trends that will be analyzed. Besides, these tools also help in better understanding of the relationships between changes in sea levels and erosion along the coastal perimeters. The first part of the chapter is focused on historical and current erosion trends and conclusions are made about the current results Afterwards, the sea-level rise consequences are discussed and, at last, the concluding part of the chapter is devoted to the comparative analysis of different prevention methods. The purpose of this chapter is to offer a comprehensive and useful discussion that adds to the existing literature and understanding of the phenomenon of coastal erosion and the measures that can be taken to address it. The following research will be useful in future similar undertakings and in the formulation of policies relating to coastal management, especially in the light of climate change.

Findings & Analysis

Section 1: Coastal Erosion Trends

Figure 17: ‘Prediction of distribution of peoples in coastal regions in the world from 2030 to 2060’

(Source: Nazarnia et al. 2020)

The study offers a rather vivid prognosis of the concentration of the population in the coastal zones and, at that, points to considerable implications for further tendencies of coastal erosion in the period between 2030 and 2060. The graph from the study depicting the population density in the coast over three decades shows that these areas are more at risk to erosion and sea level (Nazarnia et al. 2020). This projection is very important in as much as it gives information on future risks best suited for adequate mitigation. The figure also indicates that the world population residing in coastal areas is estimated to increase between the years 2030 and 2060. This has however been occasioned by several considerations such as population density, employment prospects and pull factor such as living close to the beach. Yet, the fact is that, with the people gathering in larger numbers in coastal regions, the problems of erosion and rising sea levels become bigger. With more people occupying these risky areas, the demand for more coastal structures and hence more coastal pressure is realised increasing the disasters’ impact through aggressive structural encroachment on the coastal ecosystems rendering more people jobless and exacerbating more coastal problems. In this figure the idea is presented that some zones will have unusually high population growth mainly at the coast. For instance, sea, some parts of Africa, and South America are expected to record significant rises in demonstrations of establishment at the coast. These areas are mainly experiencing enhanced urban development especially along the coastal areas but are poorly prepared and equipped to handle the effects of coastal erosion.

Moreover, the grpah proves that it is crucial to incorporate the expected population growth estimates in the coastal management strategies. Therefore, with the increase of the population residing at the coastal areas, there is need to come up with and set out appropriate measures of handling both the short and the long term impacts of coastal erosion. This ranges from improving available facilities and structures, supporting proper use of soils and other natural resources, and supporting natural ecosystems and structures such as coastal barriers and wetlands which have double values of protection and environmental conservation. The figure above from (Nazarnia et al. 2020) offers a subsequent view of how populations are potentially going to shift in the coastal areas and consequently, the challenges of coastal erosion.

Figure 18: ‘Net present value (NPV) results for the cost-benefit analyses’

(Source:Hagedoorn et al. 2021 )

Lower Cost Estimate

Upper Cost Estimate

To prove this a simplest primary analysis of the shoreline due to the increase of the water level of the sea was done. This was done using software called Ansys that practices Computational Fluid Dynamics. Engineering analysis is a field which is served by this particular platform. The elaborations of the results and the processes used here are given as follows: 

In the study by (Hagedoorn et al. 2021), there is an exploration of the different solutions for coastal erosion through the application of cost-benefit analysis’ legislative approach. The results of NPV projections depending upon the different projections (low, mean, high) as well as lower and upper costs are demonstrated in the above figure of the paper based on a 3% discount rate which was calculated under the precondition of 100% effectiveness of the applied measures. This figure is critical when trying to determine the feasibility and the stability of various plans of protecting the coast. The graph presents the patterns of NPV in the case of nature-based solutions and engineering solutions for combating coastal erosion. The NPV in this case calculates benefits and costs over time as a way of determining the efficient economic value of each approach. Therefore, due to the possibility of different projections and costs, the figure presents a more detailed analysis of how different uncertainties may affect the economic viability of coastal protection measures.

If the projection is low, the analysis of NPVs again shows positive economic outcomes for both nature-based and engineering solutions but with significant distinctions in the scales. It was observed that nature-based solutions like mangroves and dunes had more benefits in terms of NPV than a seawall and a groin. This implies that under any reasonable benchmark, nature based interventions are not only an efficient way to deliver coastal protection, but also superior on the aspect of economic returns. The idea is that if we take the mean of the projection scenarios, we only strengthen the economic profitability of the upcoming scale of application of nature-based solutions. NPV results for these interventions remain positive signifying that these interventions afford the coastal headland good value for money when the probabilities of sea level rise and erosion rates lie between the Re and Im values. In the high projection scenario, the NPV results point towards the potential economic consequences which may originate from the further rise of sea level and increased level of coastal erosion. Regarding the NPV, nature-based and engineering solutions remain profitable, yet the gap between the economic benefits from one and the other type of solution shrinks significantly. This scenario underlines the necessity to apply the principles of adaptive management and flexibility to the strategies of coastal protection regarding the occurrence of future unknowns.

Section 2: Impact of Sea-Level Rise

Figure 19: ‘SLAMM simulated land cover change within the study area’

(Source: Rezaie et al. 2020)

The Table from (Rezaie et al. 2020) shows the output of Sea Level Affecting Marshes Model (SLAMM) that provides the forecasted land cover distribution in the analysis area, concerning the SLR. This table is essential to realize that such types of land cover as wetlands, forests, or urban areas will change about the increased levels of sea level as well as the corresponding effects. According to the SLAMM simulation table, there are large changes in the amount and type of coverage, especially the large loss of wetland coverage that is a major issue. Coastal wetlands that have vital functions as buffers for storms and are significant in light of overall property impacts are likely to decrease significantly. This loss is very worrying bearing in mind the importance of wetlands where many animals live, water sources as well as carbon sinks. In providing estimation regarding threat level of flood-prone areas the values are also high in low-lying urban areas which in turn can raise incidents of flooding and structures damages. From the table it can also be observed that urbanization has thrived on the areas that were once natural barriers now flooded by rising sea levels. It also leads to risky occupation of coastal areas and thus deepens the impacts of storm surges and other coastal risks. Habitat fragmentation within the study zone is expected to have a decrease in the forest coverage, specifically, the effect of saline water intrusion and prolonged flooding. When there is a shift from forested land to water body like sea, lake or marsh; this disrupts bio-diversity in addition to obtaining fewer barriers against storm effects. The table present specifics of these changes, thereby giving a vision of how various inventories would transform as regards the land cover type. Such information is critical for coastal managers as well as policymakers when formulating appropriate adaptation frameworks. From these areas, the extent of change is expected and are areas that can benefit from specific interventions that will help to conserve habitats and facilities.

Figure 20: ‘Total coastal flood damage estimates for storm’

(Source: Koks et al. 2023 )

The above figure from Koks et al. (2023) give detailed result or estimates of the possible extent of costal flood impacts due to storm Xynthia depending on different situation. The figure portrays total flooded damages across the three socioeconomic infrastructure expansion cases, three climate change releases and three adaptation measures, where the broken line shows the simulated damage in the reference event.

The three panels in the figure represent different socioeconomic infrastructure expansion scenarios: The levels of expansion are thus categorized as low, medium and high. Such instances depict a transformative and divergent development and infrastructure hectare density that has a tremendous impact on the degree of floods. Low expansion implies that there is lesser exposure of infrastructure hence less damage in the occurrence of floods. On the other hand, the high expansion shows significantly elevated damage figures as it portrays the susceptibility of highly built areas along the coast to intense storm episodes. Within each panel, the grouped bars represent three climate change scenarios: based on sea level rise: low, moderate and high. These scenarios describe various rates of the sea level, which increases the effect of storm surges. The results of the projections are that in the case of higher sea-level rise, the costs of floods increase substantially in all sociological and economic situations. This trend shows that the effect of climate change is multiplied when it comes hand in hand with massive construction of infrastructure. The colours within the bars denote three adaptation measures: They are as follows: The first one being no adaptation followed by structural adaptation such as seawalls, levee among others there is non-structural adaptation such as managed retreat, land use planning among others. It can be seen from the figure that adjusting the adaptation measures is effective in reducing flood losses to different extents.

The grey dotted line in each panel represents the simulation of the result for the reference event. Such a baseline also indicates the increased rates of damage as a result of other future climate and socioeconomic shifts in the absence of adaptation. In comparing them with the adaptation scenarios, underpins the need for proactive planning as well as the enhancement of sound adaptation strategies.

Section 3: Effectiveness of Engineering Solutions

Figure 21: ‘LiDAR Observation and Coastal Protection at Ban Si Long’

(Source: Charoenlerkthawin et al. 2022)

The image from Charoenlerkthawin et al. (2022) shows the evaluation of grey and green engineered solutions for coastal defence in Ban Si Long of Chao Phraya Delta, Thailand. The figure is divided into three parts:

Part (a) by assessing the LiDAR observation for the digital terrain model is used to capture the terrain features of Ban Si Long. This model is important in demarcating the geographical features of coastal landforms. Thus, LiDAR data allowed the authors to develop precise and highly detailed DTM that captures the characteristics of coastal erosion and the condition of coastal area at present. This data therefore provides a point of reference against which future changes as well as effects of protective measures can be measured.

Part (b) shows a cross-sectional view of the shore and seabed with information on the Positions of the coastal protection structures. These profiles are quite useful in displaying the status of the coastal landforms in regard to the protective structures. These cross-sections illustrate differences in height and the layout of the shore, seafloor, and other forms of protection. This information assist in creating awareness on how the structures work with natural processes and the ability to control erosion.

Part (c) shows the coast protection structures put in the eroded area defined by the shoreline movement of the years 1954-2021. This part of the figure is essential for the illustration of the real-life application of the engineering solutions provided. These structures; the grey structures (concrete, rock); and the green structures (vegetation, natural barriers); are erected to effectively fight erosion at specific areas. Thus, the nature shown in the installation also focuses on the attempt to prevent the negative change of the coast and stabilize the shore.

Figure 22: ‘Shoreline Change Rates along the West African Coast’

(Source: Ankrah et al. 2023)

The paper present an extensive literature review of data presented on the shoreline changes and their rates along the west African shores. The table is very useful in the context of the investigation since it indicates the degree of change on the shorelines of West African countries and is concrete evidence for the dissimilar rates of coastal processes.

The table indicates several places on the coast of West Africa with the associated rates of coastal change. These rates are expressed as erision and deposition, which are figured in meters per year. The authors have systematically described these changes and gone further to give a comprehensive outlook about which parts of the world are shrinking or actually gaining shorelines more preciously, through coastal erosion. The data here goes on to show a rather large degree of spatial variability in shoreline change rates. Erosion, which is defined as the process through which coastal land is lost, occurs at a high rate in some areas considered in the research, namely the coastline of Ghana and part of Nigeria. These areas are among the most sensitive to inundation and sea level rise and other impacts of climate change including activites such as mining and construction which futhers erosion. However, other locations of the coast indicate natural or artificial accretion, positive shoreline change rates, therefore are the changes. These, therefore, show that there is need for the development of specific coastal management solutions that address the conditions of the territory in question. Based on the shoreline change rates provided on the table, the authors point to current trends and significant call for engineering solutions among the detrimental results of coastal erosion. Based on the findings, regions characterized by high erosion rates need urgent intervention through both grey and green engineering. Revetment structures including seawalls and groynes are examples of grey solutions since they hurt the natural environment while mangrove restoration, and beach nourishment is green solutions since they are friendly to the environment. It is used as a framework for policy advisories regarding the enhancement of coastal management practices in west Africa.

Table 1: ‘Categorization and Prioritization of Coastal Defence Measures (CDMs) for Hazard Mitigation

(Source: Sauvé et al. 2022)

According to the paper, the table is divided into three main categories: Stock Adequate Basic Infrastructure, Green Infrastructure, and Grey and Green, including the consideration of Policy and Management.

Physical Structures are the different engineered solutions such as Sea Walls, Breakwaters, Groynes, and Revetments (Sauvé et al. 2022). Vertical or curved sea walls are seen to be very important especially to prevent erosion. Fixed structures such as breakwaters have moderate wave dissipation while floating breakwaters are in the same category; groynes which are perpendicular and long are mainly for trapping sediments. Other structures like revetments, constructed from either rock or concrete, are also highly valued in preventing erosion.

Nature-based solutions are Wetlands, Dunes, and Coral Reefs. Mangroves and marshes which are mostly classes of wetlands are proven to be efficient in the reduction of flood and habitats. According to the analysis, dunes – natural or restored ones provide a moderate level of erosion protection and, at the same time, SA’s coral reefs, both natural and artificial, are appreciated for their dual function of wave dissipation and aquatic biodiversity improvement. As for the Hybrid approach, people use it for a combination of methods for more extensive protection. The essence of Integrated Systems and Soft Engineering solutions like beach nourishment and dune stabilization presents composite advantages in erosion mitigation and recreational use. These approaches have a medium level of prioritization since they exhibit high flexibility about their efficiency. Finally, Policy and Management plans such as Zoning Regulations and Community Engagement are crucial for effective long-term mitigation of hazards and risk preparedness. Coastal setbacks and the zoning of land use have a high degree of prioritization concerning recreation since they address risks continually in the long term. This paper attributes community engagement, which incorporates awareness and participation, to a moderate effect in the management of risks and preparation.

Section 4: Nature-Based Solutions

Figure 23: Green Nourishment concepts

(Source: Chen et al. 2022)

The image shows the idea of Green nourishment as the main idea of the modern approach when dealing with beach protection and coastal erosion. This is illustrated in the geometry of nourishment sited in panel A of the figure on top of the nearshore sandbar (Chen et al. 2022). It also reveals the enhanced wave height under mild wave conditions, Hm = 1. 5m, and T = 8s. The gray color refers to the wave height concerning the REF option, whereas the black color underlines the wave height in case of the SN option. The comparison indicates that nourishment affects the attenuation of waves, illustrating the effectiveness of this method for decreasing the waves’ energy and preserving coastline. Part B shows the location as well as the extent of seagrass beds. Spread and positioning of seagrass beds are considered very important in terms of sediments fixation and in addition wave dissipation of coastlines protection. This argument brings together the aspects of nourishment in a physical sense and introducers biological constituents into the coastal protection development system.

Table 2: Simulation Results of nourishments

(Source: Chen et al. 2022)

The table defines the various simulation runs that were proposed in order to assess the impacts of different parameters to the green nourishment approach. The simulations carried the experiments of nourishment, location of the seagrass meadow, planting methods and techniques, length of the seagrass meadow and mild/storm waves condition. The table below sets out these factors to demonstrate their interaction with each other and their impact on the nature-based solution effectiveness (Chen et al. 2022). For example, the distribution and extent of the seagrass beds contributes to a recommendation of the most effective arrangement for the highest chance of shore protection. Furthermore, it is desirable to show the strengths of the approach in conditions of different levels of wave agitation, such as mild and storm ones. Such analysis amplifies the versatility and the sustainability of green nourishment in providing a rationale for solving coastal erosion problem without destabilizing the natural environment.

Figure 24: Analysis of Monitoring Methods

(Source: Kumar et al. 2021)

The paper by Kumar et al. (2021) also offer a comprehensive analysis of NBS and the abilities of the approach in reducing natural risks. The graphical image from the paper presents a detailed analysis of the full-text articles included in the review across various dimensions: The factors of classification are the year of publication, different topics that have been covered, geographic locations, and the contribution on a continental basis.

(a): Publication year of the full-text articles included with the review

This Figure (a) depicts that the interest in NBS has been on the rise in the previous years. The total number of publications have been increasing due to better emergence of awareness and more research work in this area. As evidenced by the graph, there is an increase in numbers on average, which has been most prominent in the period of the last ten years that imply that NBS are increasingly being looked at as key solutions to natural disasters resulting from climate change and degradation of the environment.

(b) and (c): Relative percentages and numbers about the topic areas addressed in this review

(b) and 2(c) report the distribution of the investigated articles according to the topic areas considered in this review. Climate control measures, water use, disaster preparedness, and measures for handling changes in species’ structure and distribution are major areas of concern. The dominance of such themes reaffirms the fact that NBSs offer the solutions both in definition and supply of ecosystem services as well as mitigate various environmental issues. The relative distribution of these areas shows that literary there is some overlap which gives a picture of integrated approach, which is synonymous with NBS.

(d): Papers by countries

From the distribution of the reviewed papers as illustrated by the fig(d) , there is a realization that there is a regional distribution of the research in NBS. Major contributors include the US, China and the European nations including UK, Germany, and Netherlands among others. Indeed, this distribution suggests a relatively greater amount of research funding, academic focus, and policy attention on NBS in these areas. Nevertheless, it refers to the possible absence of studies regarding the subject from developing countries which can also yield positive results from the further integration of NBS.

(e): Percentage distribution regarding the continents

The last figure (e) depicts the five continents where publications have been carried out in percentage distribution. Europe is most represented in the sphere of research, as well as North America and Asia comes after. The enhanced donations by these continents will be in line with vulnerability coupled with enthusiasm in search of protective measures in relation to some of the natural disasters. Africa and South America have fewer publications pointing to the fact that there is a need for more research activities and enhancement of research capacity to investigate the application of NBS in these parts of the world.

Primary Analysis

In order to show the result of the increase in the water level of the sea on the shorelines a primary analysis was conducted. This was done using the Ansys platform. This is a platform that is used for engineering analysis. The details of the results and process used here are provided below.

Figure 25: Geometry

(Source: Ansys)

The above picture illustrate the geometry of the model designed in this project. The model depicts the atmosphere as well as the water of the sea and the shore line. This geometry was prepared using Ansys.

Figure 26: Boundry Inlet

(Source: Ansys)

After the preparation of the preparation of the geometry of the model, the “boundary condition” was decided and given. This was done in order to fix the direction of the wave. Also, it was ensured that the wave hit the shoreline.

Figure 27: Mesh

(Source: Ansys)

The first step of doing analysis in Ansys is to create a mesh of the geometry. This is defined as dividing the entire geometry into small elements. In this way, all the elements are analysed separately and the results of these are combined together to get the effect on the entire structure.

Figure 28: Wave Couture

(Source: Ansys)

The above picture shows the details of the volume of air & water impacts the created shoreline. This is the primary step of doing the analysis. This was created using Ansys.

Figure 29: Turbulence Intensity

(Source: Ansys)

The analysis that was performed here was about showing the intensity of the wave. It is to be noted that when the impact of water on the shore increases it becomes more turbulent. In previous times, the waves near the shorelines were less turbulent. However, with the increase in water height, this turbulence is getting increased as shown in the above image.

Mathematical Calculations

Rate of erosion of shorelines = Changes in the position of the shorelines/Time taken for teh change

As an example, if a shoreline is eroded by 50 m in 20 years then,

Rate of erosion of shorelines = 50/20 = 2.5 m/year

In this way, the possible future erosion can also be projected. 

Retreat of shoreline = S/tan Ө

Here,

S = rise of the sea level

Ө = slope of the beach

If the increase in the level of water is 0.5 m, and the beach has a slope is 2 degrees the,

Retreat of shoreline = 0.5/tan 2⁰

Retreat of shoreline = 14.29 m

Impact of the action of wave

Energy of wave (E) = ⅛ ρ g H²

Here,

E = Energy of wave

ρ = density of water (1025 kg/m²)

g = acceleration because of gravity (9.81 m/s²)

H = wave height

For example, a wave having a height of 2 m, can create energy as below.

E = ⅛ x 1025 x 9.81 x 2² = 5027.625 J/m

Erosion because of waves can also be estimated with the use of the rate of transporting sediment. 

Q = K H² T/L

Here,

Q = rate of transporting sediment

K = coefficient of transport of sediment

T = wave period

L = length of wave

Shoreline erosion of USA due to seawater rise

The data of erosion of shorelines of USA were taken to perform some analysis. The results obtained from these analyses are provided below.

Rate of erosion = [Position of shoreline (current year) - Position of shoreline (earlier year)]/Interval of time

From year 2000 to 2020,

Rate of erosion = (100 – 50) / (2020 – 2000) = 2.5 m/year

Figure 30: Shoreline erosion of USA over time

(Source: Self-created in Excel)

Retreat of shoreline = S/tan Ө

Figure 31: Retreat of the shoreline 

(Source: Self-created in Excel)

The energy of wave (E) = ⅛ ρ g H²

Figure 32: Energy of waves having different heights

(Source: Self-created in Excel)

Conclusion

This chapter had explained the various effects of coastal erosion and rising sea levels, established engineering solutions across those effects, and stressed the importance of nature-based solutions. Based on literature research of various articles and empirical data, conclusions can be driven that both the use of new technology approaches and the conventional methods are indispensable for successful coastal protection. Ongoing research and management is necessary to face new challenges which are more and more connected to climate change and to guarantee a healthy and sustainable future for coastal regions.

Chapter 5: Discussion

5.1. Introduction:Evaluation of Traditional and Natural Solutions for Coastal Protection

Determination of the usefulness of solutions that are both traditional & natural solutions used to protect the coastal areas was evaluated here. This was focused on the ill effects created because of the rise in the level of seawater. This is one among the aspects of “coastal engineering”. While undertaking this research, the change in the condition of climate and the effect of this change on the other economic and social conditions was taken into consideration. This is a chapter that encapsulates the findings of this research as related in the past chapters of this research. There are different theories as well as models, for instance, the “coastal engineering” were considered to assess the outcomes of this study. The strong impact of the demonstrated models and other ideas such as adaptation of the ecosystem as well as the policies to be adopted due to existing climate condition can also be noticed here. Besides, there also exists information in this research regarding the manner in which the increase in the level of sea poses impacts to the aspect of social & economic. Specifically, in this paper, emphasis was made on how it was perceived by the people in the coastal regions. The things that were found from this research are discussed below.

5.2. Comparing Results

This is a project that has considered different theories of “coastal engineering” in order to determine the results of this project. Through this, it was tried to determine what steps are to be taken in order to protect the shoreline from the devastating effects of the high” sea waves”. There is a term that is called “coastal vulnerability index”. This is used in order to specify the condition of the coastal areas and identify the potential risks to that area. The results found here are interpreted below.

Trend of erosion

The findings indicate that the coastal erosion is actually increasing with sea levels rising that support the Bruun Rule that points at possible shoreline retreat due to high water levels. But, the coastal vulnerability index (CVI) provides a larger picture in comparison to the above factors which includes wave energy, sediment transport, and human interference. The study established that the erosion is most rampant in places with many human activities hence supports the CVI use of socio-economic factors that enhance the sensitivity of the coastal regions.

Effect of the rise of sea level

The study also pointed out on the applicability of the Dynamic Adaptive Policy Pathways (DAPP) model in dealing with the problem of sea level rise. What this model shows is the adaptability of planning when it comes to possible future sea-level rise which is important for presenting how the coastal protection strategies should progress. The results concur with this theory especially with regards to the idea that traditional hard engineering solutions like the seawalls are increasingly becoming ineffective given the dynamic changes in coastlines. Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA) supported NbS that consequently align with the DAPP principles that are to be focused on in this dissertation.

Engineering solutions

Coastal defense mechanisms serve to protect the coasts and encompass traditional methods that employ hard structures for instance sea walls and groynes that are relied on as the mainline of defense against the phenomenon of erosion. Yet, as the research shows, these solutions normally affect sediment transport and distribution and the ecology of the enlisted areas, an aspect illustrated in the Bruun Rule and CVI. The study indicated that seawalls as an intervention at first serve the purpose of protection but in the long run cause issues like down drain erosion and destruction of the ecosystem. In the same respect, groynes appear to be costly in the long run because of their maintenance needs and negative effects on the environment.

Natural solutions

On the other hand, NbS are in sync with the Ecosystem-based Adaptation or EbA model and the Coastal Vulnerability Index or CVI since the latter two put a lot of stock on ecological coping capacity. The study has proven that NbS such as mangrove restoration and dune stabilization provide long term resilience since they promote natural processes that protect the coastlines. To support these conclusions, we have the Bruun rule which argues that that natural sediment movement is critical in preventing shoreline erosion. EbA models presume that natural systems (mangroves, wetlands) can protect shorelines, making social and economical benefits, namely sequestration of carbon and increased bio-diversity according to the results of the study.

Cost-benefit analysis

The economic evaluation of these solutions can also be supported conjointly with theories of socio-economic vulnerability in the coastal zones. A major impact observed for the future was that nature based solutions offered better returns than the conventional ones because their maintenance was expensive and their benefits were received by a larger group of beneficiaries. The research also complements these economic benefits by applying the NPV (Net Present Value) analysis to value same. This is in consonance with the DAPP, which was designed to observe a long-term flexible economic policy with appropriate stability. Although groynes and seawalls are more successful in halting erosion in the initial period this study NPV has demonstrate that engineering solution are costly in terms of maintenance and worsen the geographical environment.

5.3. Comparing Results with Hypotheses & Propositions

H0: Hypothetically, the increase in construction practices is one of the major causes of loss of shorelines.

Result: The results support previous authors’ observations that construction activities in the vicinity of shorelines upset natural sediment transport dynamics, contributing to the enhanced rate of shoreline erosion. This finding is parallel to CVI which regards human activities as the cause of increased vulnerability along the coastal areas. These trends correspond with this hypothesis especially in populous and urbanized areas to show that construction disrupts natural protective structures like the dunes and mangroves.

H0: Increase in the sea levels is the main reason for coastal erosion.

Result: The same also holds for the findings of this study to support this hypothesis. A change in the sea level forces with the exposure of the water increasing, particularly because of global warming, which actions the Bruun Rule. This is also supported by the current research that showed that with the rise in sea levels, there is also an addition of energy in wave, thus faster rates of erosion. This is further confirmed by the CVI which depicts regions receiving high sea level rise as more prone to erosion despite little human interference.

H0: The application engineering techniques cannot solve the problems of shoreline erosion sustainably.

Result: The findings of this research support this hypothetical assumption in the strongest possible terms. The conventional engineering practices that are used to address problems offer temporary solutions and in the process worsen the social-ecological system and its capacity to deal with sea-level rise. This also supports what the Bruun Rule and CVI proposes that hard solutions interfere with the natural transport of sediments and degrades the environment. Hence, the Dynamic Adaptive Policy Pathways (DAPP) model embraces the need for more structure that can offer more flexible structure; again, which nature-based solutions can better offer.

H0: Through the implementation of nature-based solutions one can obtain long term sustainability in controlling coastal erosion.

Result: This hypothesis is supported by the research in that nature based solutions are found to be more effective in the long run because they are flexible to environmental changes. This finding is well supplemented by the Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA) model whereby adaptation strategies involve ecosystem manipulation while at the same benefiting other aspects such as carbon stocks and biodiverse. The CVI also reveals the relevance of the centre’s focus on ecological features as a way of decreasing the levels of vulnerability along the coast.

5.4. Comparing Results with Literature

This project shows the progress of methods to protect shorelines from traditional methods to methods that are more sustainable in nature. Also, the focus was on the solutions where natural items or methods are used. One of the most important rules in the field of “coastal engineering” is the “Bruun rule”. This is useful in the determination of the theories, and limitations of the different solutions used for protecting shorelines in “coastal engineering”. One of the best methods that can be used in this is seawalls. However, it is effective only for short time. It is because in the long run there is erosion of the downstream end can be observed because of this. 

Two essential models were discussed here. The name of tehse models are “CVI & DAPP”. These two are very important for the management of coastal areas maintaining “environmental sustainability” and social-economical aspects. These models present that in some cases strong “engineering solutions” are needed. Whereas in many times these solutions prove to be ineffective in the long run. Other than this the modification of these solutions is the use of natural materials with traditional methods forming a hybrid to protect the shorelines. 

Another important thing that is highlighted through the review of the different literature is that the solutions need to be designed in such a way that suits the ecosystem. This should be in order to reduce the other forms of environmental impacts gebnerated because of the implementation of “engineering solutions”. 

5.5. Discussing Results

The combination of both the traditional and modern-day adaptations can result in something fruitful and sustainable solutions. In this way, the role played by the ecosystem in countering the change of climate can be utilised. However, from the results of this project, it can be observed that the implementation of the traditional solutions is still useful in many contexts. Also, if these methods are combined with solutions using natural materials then the effectiveness of tehse methods gets better. The findings of this project are stated below.

Hybrid Methods

One of the key findings of this research is that with the combination of traditional methods and the NBS, hybrid solutions are obtained. These are the solutions that show a good performance. A traditional solution that can be considered is seawall. On the other hand, if an NBS of mangroves is considered. Combining them together will provide better results and maintain sustainability. This is one of the best strategies that can be utilized in the protection of shorelines. 

Socio-economical aspects

This is an important consideration for the population living in the coastal regions. The effect of the erosion of the shoreline can be described in terms of CVI. Both the physical as well as “socio-economical” factors are considered in this to determine the effect on the coastal communities. From the result, it was found that NBS comes with a high “initial cost”. Still, these are preferable because of their long-term benefits in the form of cost. This is most suitable where it is not possible to implement costly measures. 

Flexibility

From the literature, it was obtained that the flexibility of the solution is one of the key factors for the adoption of the solution. Such methods that harm the environment to the least extent are most likely to be adopted. Because of this reason, the “hybrid solutions” prove to be the best to adopt.

5.6. Discussing Limitations of Results

This research tried to cover all the important aspects of the topic of this research. However,m some of the areas are there that were not covered through this research. These can be considered as the limitations of this research. These are explained below. 

Time-consuming NBS methods

Through this project, it was established that the “hybrid methods” are the best solutions to protect the coastal shores. These solutions refer to different forms of NBS. The main two methods that come under this are restoration of mangroves and stabilization of dunes. The most disadvantageous characteristic of these solutions is that in order to come to its full form these take several years. Hence, for the areas that require immediate action to protect the slopes, these methods were found unsuitable. 

Climate models of generalized nature

Here, models like the level of sea affecting the marshes and CVI were used. These are some models where a large part of these models is dependent on assumptions. It can be noticed that depending on the conditions of climate and geographical locations the effects on the coastal regions change. These changes are both environmental & socio-economic impacts. Because of assumptions, these variations were not considered here. 

Economic changes

Changes in the economy of an area result in the changing of the investment scenario of projects like building solutions to protect the shorelines. These changes may be in the form of a change in the “world economy” or in the economy of the country. This thing was also not taken into account here.

5.7. Conclusion

A thorough analysis of the several engineering methods that can be implemented to reduce the erosion of the shorelines was envisaged here. In doing this, different models were considered here. With this, the effect of increasing levels of seas on the community living in the coastal area was determined. The results show why the “hybrid solutions” are better than the traditional solutions. From there it was seen that despite of initial high cost, in the long run, the “hybrid solutions” proved to be more cost-effective. Also, these have less ill impact on the environment. In addition to this, to make a solution more adaptable the social factor is also considered. In this, the impact of the solution on the community is considered.

Chapter 6: Conclusion and Recommendations

6.1 Introduction:Combating Coastal Erosion: Engineering Solutions and Causes of Rising Sea Levels

The areas present beside the seas are subject to erosion. It is mainly because of the collision of sea waves with the sea shores. However, because of the rise in the level of water, it can be noticed that the collision power of the waves has also increased. As a result of this, the rate of erosion of the shoreline has increased also. Through this research, we tried to find solutions that can bring down this erosion scenario. The results of this research show that it is possible to use several engineering measures to counter the adverse effects of sea waves. Also, the reasons behind the rise of the level of seawater were also envisaged here.

6.2 Linking with the Objectives

Reasons for the erosion of the shoreline

One of the objectives of this research was to determine the reasons that are responsible to the erosion of shorelines. Here, the most important reasons which are increasing the height of seawater are discussed ultimately causing erosion of shorelines.

Effects of erosion

Another objective of this was to find out the ill effects of this water rise on the shorelines. The results and review of the literature show a clear description of these impacts (Raju & Arockiasamy, 2022). Hence, this objective was well met.

Methods of mitigation

Determination of the mitigation measures to protect the shorelines from the adverse effects of sea waves was an objective of this. The results tell about a series of measures of different categories that are impactful in the protection of the shorelines (Kindeberg et al. 2023).

Materials needed

This research also shows the materials that are used in the preparation of the engineering solutions. This meets one of the research objectives.

Comparison of solutions

A thorough comparison of the different “engineering methods” that were determined from this research is presented here. This satisfies the objective of the research.

6.3 Implications of Findings

The first thing that the results of this research provide is the rate of trend of the erosion of the sea shores in the different parts of the world. The trend also shows how the future scenario can become if the erosion continues at this rate. Moreover, the results also show how the implemented “engineering solutions” can be beneficial in terms of the economy. The reduction of land mass because of this water rise is also shown in the results. The details of the biodiversity loss along with the loss of “flora & funna” are shown through the results (Waddington et al. 2022). Other than this the engineering measures which are the most suitable for this scenario are shown here.

6.4 Strengths and Weaknesses

Different important details of the research topic can be found in all the above chapters. All of these are able to deliver key concepts & trends of the rise of the water level of seas. It also gives impacts on the sea shores because of this rise. Despite this diversity of information, there are some limits to this research. From this point of view, this research can be said to have some “strengths & weaknesses”.

Strengths

The main strength of this research is that it reflects the reasons behind the rise of seawater. This also describes the factors that are causing this change. It starts from the reasons causing the climate to change and how the change of climate is responsible for the rise of this water level (Bagheri et al. 2021). Other than this, the trends of this undesirable scenario were shown properly with reference to different reports. All of these make this research filled with authentic data.

Weaknesses

With many strengths, there are some weaknesses that this research possesses. The first thing in this is that no “primary data” was used here. “Primary data” is a rich source of the latest information about a topic. It also represents the results in the form of facts & figures (Staudt et al. 2021). As only “secondary data” was used here, the features that “primary data” can provide are not present here.

6.5 Recommendations

Here, robust effort was made for the determination of essential results of this research topic. The research was all about the determination of engineering solutions to protect sea shores from high water waves. These waves have become severe because of the rise of the “water level”. Although sound effort was given still there are some developments that still can be made in this research. These can be considered as the recommendations for this research. The first thing that can be done in this is to collect “primary data” to do this research. The secondary data is a good source still it cannot cover the views of the experts in this field about the challenges & method of application of the desired “engineering solutions”. If “primary data” can be used then it will give far better & accurate results. Other than this, another thing that can be done in order to improve the research is to look for future progress on this topic. Here, only the potential best technologies or measures which can be taken for the mitigation of shore erosion are discussed (Basack et al. 2022). However, depending on the rate of increase in water level, public demand, and advancement of technologies there may be different methods suitable in the future for this work. These potential future solutions can also highlighted through this research.

6.6 Conclusion

The entire research is about the current-day scenario of the seashore. There are a lot of changes that can be observed when compared to the same few years ago. It is because of the changes in the conditions of the climate. The most important thing in this is the rise of the level of seawater. This is the force operating the erosion of the shorelines. There are several ill effects of this such as loss of land, economic damage, loss of habitat, impact on the biodiversity and others. To improve this situation, some measures need to be taken to protect the shorelines. This research is all about the determination of the best methods that can protect the shoreline from the adverse effects of the high “water level”.

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Author Bio

Casey Bennett   7 years | PhD

My name is Casey Bennett and I have obtained my graduation, post-graduation and PhD from London Business School. I have been giving education to students for the last 7 years in the United Kingdom. I can help you deal with complex dissertation topics, assignments, and essays and finish them fast.